Substance this website use, especially in the context of sexual activity, should be taken into account when developing new prevention and intervention programmes aimed at reducing sexual risk behaviour in HIV-infected MSM currently in specialized care. The prevalence and incidence of HIV infection in men who have sex with men (MSM) are persistently high in some Western countries. Therefore, it is of importance to identify determinants of risky sexual behaviour in this group. Sexual risk behaviour, defined as unprotected receptive or insertive anal

intercourse among HIV-positive MSM, was investigated in several studies. A meta-analysis of 30 studies on sexual risk behaviour among HIV-positive MSM found a prevalence of 43% for any unprotected anal intercourse. Prevalence was 30% for unprotected anal intercourse with seroconcordant sexual partners, 16% with partners of unknown HIV serostatus, and 13% with serodiscordant partners (multiple answers were permitted) [1]. HIV-positive MSM report significantly more unprotected sexual intercourse

[2] and more receptive anal intercourse than HIV-negative MSM [3]. Sexual risk behaviour increased after the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the middle of the 1990s [4, 5] for casual, but not for steady partners [5, 6]. The consumption of psychoactive substances has been suggested to be an important factor influencing sexual risk behaviour [7, 8]. Sirolimus cell line Compared with the general population, MSM are a group with an increased prevalence of substance use and substance-related disorders. A meta-analytic review of studies on psychiatric disorders among MSM showed that MSM had a 1.51-fold higher risk for the 12-month

prevalence of alcohol abuse and a 2.4-fold higher risk for illicit drug abuse, according to the criteria of the DSM-IV (fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association), than heterosexual people [9]. Population-based surveys also showed that MSM consumed illicit drugs more often than heterosexual men [10-12]. Several studies showed significant differences between MSM and heterosexual men regarding the consumption of illicit drugs [12-14], but (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate no or small differences for alcohol use [15-18]. In particular, there is a high lifetime prevalence of recreational club drug use in the gay community, especially in the context of parties. Cocaine, methamphetamine and MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-n-methylamphetamin, ‘Ecstasy’) were found to be most commonly used, followed by ketamine and γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) [19-21]. In addition, consumption of alcohol is associated with sexual risk behaviour in MSM. In a cohort study, heavy alcohol use and alcohol in the context of sexual activities were independent predictors of HIV seroconversion. People who drank heavily were significantly more likely [odds ratio (OR) 1.97] to become infected [8].

Design.  Thirty-two Swedish children aged 7–9 years had all four deciduous canines extracted over three occasions. The children rated procedural and postoperative pain on visual analogue scales. Acceptance of injections and extractions was assessed by the treating dentists. Analgesic consumption and recovery time MAPK inhibitor for drinking and eating was reported by parents. Dental fear was assessed using the Children’s Fear Survey Schedule questionnaire. Results.  Procedural pain showed low median levels,

although some individuals reported high values. Boys reported significantly more pain at appointments when two (as opposed to one) canines were extracted. Postoperative pain levels were low and use of analgesics sparse. Dental fear paralleled norm values and did not increase from pre- to post-extraction. Conclusions.  Pain management routines during extractions of this kind should be revised. Single tooth extractions seem to be preferable to extractions of two canines at the same appointment. Extraction of four deciduous canines should not cause major postoperative inconvenience; these extractions

neither triggered nor increased dental fear. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2010; 20: 165–172 Objective.  The aim of this study was to investigate caries and its determinants in preschool children with and without asthma, followed from 3 to 6 years. Methods and subjects.  Caries, plaque, and gingivitis were examined at 3 and 6 years of age in 64 asthmatic children and Progesterone 50 matched, healthy control children. GDC 0449 Furthermore, at 6 years radiographic examination and saliva sampling

were conducted. The parents were interviewed about various oral health-related factors. Results.  Initial caries increment between 3 and 6 years of age was statistically significant higher for children with asthma compared with children without asthma (P < 0.05). Asthmatic children had more bleeding gingivitis and a higher consumption of sugary drinks than healthy children at 3 years of age (P < 0.05). At both 3 and 6 years of age, the asthmatic children were more frequently mouth breathers than healthy children, only statistically significant for 6-year olds (P < 0.05). Conclusion.  Preschool children with asthma at 3 years of age run a higher risk of developing caries lesions until 6 years of age compared with children without asthma. Children with asthma have a higher prevalence of bleeding gingivitis, a higher intake of sugary drinks and are more frequently mouth breathers than preschool children without asthma. "
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2010; 20: 426–434 Background.  The prevalence of molar incisor hypomineralization (MIH) varies considerably around the world; however, few studies have examined MIH in South American countries. Objective.

Relative risks were calculated using Poisson regression with robust standard errors to account for the binary outcome. Age-adjusted estimates were obtained by including a quadratic relationship with age at diagnosis [13]. Data were analysed using stata 11.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX) [14]. During the period 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2010 there were 978 adults diagnosed with HIV infection through antibody testing in New Zealand; of these,

198 were tested as part of an immigration medical, and 25 had been previously diagnosed overseas, leaving 755 for this study. An initial CD4 cell count was provided for 80.3% of these individuals (606 of 755) (Table 1). The proportion of those

with a CD4 cell count available who had a diagnosis of AIDS within 3 months of their HIV diagnosis was 14.5% (88 of 606), compared with 8.7% (13 of 149) for those for whom a CD4 cell LY294002 chemical structure count was not available Dabrafenib (P = 0.06). Of those with an available initial CD4 cell count, 50.0% (303 of 606) were ‘late presenters’, and 32.0% (194 of 606) had ‘advanced HIV disease’ (Table 2). Overall, the median CD4 count was 346 cells/μL. MSM were least likely to be ‘late presenters’ and to present with ‘advanced HIV disease’. The median CD4 count was 404 cells/μL for MSM, and 271 cells/μL for those heterosexually infected. Among MSM there was no significant change in the proportion presenting late over the years 2005–2010 (P for trend = 0.11 for ‘late presentation’ and 0.21 for ‘advanced HIV disease’). Table 3 shows that presenting late was significantly more common among older MSM, with the age difference more marked among those with ‘advanced HIV disease’. MSM of Māori ethnicity were more Tolmetin likely to present with ‘advanced HIV disease’ compared with those of European ethnicity. The relative risk (RR) for Pacific MSM was higher than for Māori MSM; however,

the numbers were smaller and the finding did not reach statistical significance. Adjustment for age increased the estimated RR of presenting with ‘advanced HIV disease’ to 2.1 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.4–3.2] for Māori MSM, and to 2.5 (95% CI 1.2–5.0) for Pacific MSM, which was then significantly raised compared with European MSM. There were no differences in ‘late presentation’ among MSM by ethnicity; adjustment for age increased the RRs only slightly and they remained nonsignificant. There were no differences in presenting late by country of infection. Not surprisingly, MSM tested because of ‘risk’ or being ‘screened’ were less likely to present late, with the difference being more marked for ‘advanced HIV disease’. Compared with those with a negative test within the previous 2 years, indicating new infection since then, those having a negative HIV test more than 2 years earlier, or never, were considerably more likely to present late.

Many HIV-positive women will have issues relating to social support needs and/or immigration issues. In both cases, it is important to identify the issues as early as possible so that women can be referred for appropriate specialist advice and support. Women with very limited funds should have access to supplementary formula feed [314, 349]. Dispersal is an issue that arises

and is generally felt to be inappropriate in pregnant women, especially if they are late in pregnancy or are recently delivered [350-352]. The testing of existing children should be raised with all newly diagnosed pregnant women. In practice, if the children are asymptomatic the testing is often most easily done when the newborn is attending paediatric follow-up for HIV diagnostic tests [353]. Adherence to medication is of vital importance for the success of therapy, and pregnant women may need extra support and Opaganib manufacturer planning in this area, especially if there are practical or psychosocial issues that may impact adversely on adherence. Referral to peer-support workers, psychology support and telephone contact may all be considered [354]. Legislation concerning eligibility to free NHS healthcare in the UK changed in 2004. Patients who

have been resident in the UK for 12 months do not have an automatic entitlement to free care in the NHS. There is an exclusion for ‘immediately necessary care’ Proteasomal inhibitor and it has been argued that treatment of an HIV-positive pregnant woman falls within this category. Since 1 October 2012, HIV patients have

not had to meet any residency requirement in order to access treatment. It is freely available regardless of immigration status. Unfortunately this may still be interpreted differently within different Trusts, in some cases putting the health of mothers and their unborn babies at risk. No hospital PLEKHM2 should refuse treatment for HIV-positive pregnant women to prevent transmission of HIV to the baby. However, it is possible that women who are otherwise ineligible for free NHS care may be liable for charges subsequently. It is advisable to get advice from colleagues, the GMC, BMA and Medical Defence Organizations in difficult cases. Legal advice can also be sought from organizations such as the Terrence Higgins Trust (THT) (www.tht.org.uk), or the National AIDS Trust (www.nat.org.uk). Postnatal depression is relatively common in the general population, tends to be underdiagnosed and is a risk in HIV-positive women. Women with, or at risk of, antenatal depression should be assessed early and referred onward appropriately [355]. The Writing Group thanks Dr David Hawkins, Dr Fiona Lyons and Dr Danielle Mercey for their peer-review of the Guidelines. Dr A de Ruiter has received lecture and consultancy fees from Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead and ViiV. Dr GP Taylor has received lecture and consultancy fees from AbbVie and his department has received research grants from Abbott. Dr A Palfreeman has received conference support from Gilead.

g. trypsin – Fig. 4c). The active site of MGL is more comparable in size to that of HsaD (Fig. 4d). Noncovalent inhibitors of MGL are thus significantly larger than those of serine proteases (e.g. compare pristimerin and benzamidine –Fig. S1) and fill more of the HsaD active site and thus have lower IC50 values. The lipophilicity of the inhibitors also has a direct effect with the more hydrophobic inhibitors, for example SB203580 clinical trial pristimerin, being favoured over charged ones, for example neostigmine, due to the apolar nature of the HsaD active site. The aim of this work was to identify leads

for fragment-based drug design (Scott et al., 2012). DCI has emerged as a good covalent inhibitor with a low IC50 value (Fig. 1a), it is however limited in its usefulness due to its ability to inhibit a broad range of enzymes (Hedstrom, 2002). Structural studies are ongoing to determine the mode of binding of DCI within the active site to improve specificity. We would like to thank Dr David Staunton (Biochemistry, Oxford University) for carrying out the mass spectroscopy

for this manuscript. We would also like to thank Dr Edward Lowe (Biochemistry, Oxford University) for his help with the data collection and structure Buparlisib mouse solution. “
“Interactions of silver phosphate nanoparticles (SPNPs) and selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) with Staphylococcus aureus cultures have been studied at the cellular, molecular and protein level. Significant antibacterial effects of both SPNPs and SeNPs on S. aureus were observed. At a concentration of 300 μM, SPNPs caused 37.5% inhibition of bacterial growth and SeNPs totally inhibited bacterial growth. As these effects might have been performed due to the interactions of nanoparticles with DNA and proteins, the interaction of SPNPs or SeNPs with the amplified Sclareol zntR gene was studied. The presence of nanoparticles decreased the melting temperatures of the nanoparticle complexes with the zntR gene by 23% for SeNPs and by 12% for SPNPs in comparison with the control value. The concentration of bacterial

metallothionein was 87% lower in bacteria after application of SPNPs (6.3 μg mg−1 protein) but was increased by 29% after addition of SeNPs (63 μg mg−1 protein) compared with the S. aureus control (49 μg mg−1 protein). Significant antimicrobial effects of the nanoparticles on bacterial growth and DNA integrity provide a promising approach to reducing the risk of bacterial infections that cannot be controlled by the usual antibiotic treatments. “
“Aspergillus niger represents a promising host for the expression of recombinant proteins, but only a few expression systems are available for this organism. In this study, the inducible catalase promoter (PcatR) from A. niger was characterized. For this, constructs were developed and checked for the expression of the alkaline xylanase gene transcriptionally fused under the cat R promoter. Two versions of the catalase (catR) promoter sequence from A.

All results were subjected to statistical analysis with Student’s t-test or one-way anova followed by the Newman–Keuls post hoc comparison test, with graphpad prism 4 software, in order to evaluate the significance of differences. The obtained significance levels are indicated in the text with the exact P-values up to 0.0001. Also, for post hoc tests, P-values are expressed by default as P < 0.05 or P < 0.001. We first investigated which C/EBP β isoforms were expressed by mature CGNs in culture, and whether they changed in survival/apoptotic conditions. To this aim,

primary cultures of rat CGNs were shifted from a medium with a high potassium concentration (25 mm KCl; K25), which is trophic for these neurons, to a medium with a low potassium selleck screening library concentration (5 mm KCl; K5), which is able to induce apoptosis, for study of the expression of the different C/EBP β isoforms in these conditions, which represent one of the most widely used models for studying neuronal survival/apoptosis (Contestabile, 2002). Immunocytochemistry of cultures shifted to a low-potassium medium demonstrated that immunoreactivity tended to decrease or disappear in apoptotic neurons as compared with neurons maintained check details in trophic conditions (Fig. 1A). Expression of C/EBP β isoforms was evaluated with western blot

analysis and the densitometry of total protein extracts at 8, 16 and 24 h after exposure to the apoptotic stimulus. This analysis showed that CGNs expressed three isoforms with the following molecular masses: 21 kDa, which matches the LIP isoform; 35 kDa, which matches the LAP2 isoform; and 50 kDa,

which matches second the LAP1 isoform post-translationally modified, probably sumoylated, as demonstrated below (Fig. 1B). Both the 50-kDa and 35-kDa bands decreased after 24 h in K5 medium, whereas the 21-kDa band increased under the same condition; the expression levels of both β-actin and GAP-43, used as controls, remained unaltered (Fig. 1B and C). In particular, comparison of the densitometric analysis data from at least three independent western blot experiments for each isoform/β-actin ratio at each time point was performed between the K25 and the K5 growth conditions by use of the two-tailed Student’s t-test; this revealed statistically significant changes at 24 h for the 35-kDa and 21-kDa isoforms (LAP2/β-actin, P = 0.023 and Z = 2.2734; LIP/β-actin, P = 0.036 and Z = 2.0969). In order to determine whether the LAP1 and LAP2 isoforms were transcriptionally activated in these conditions, phosphorylation of C/EBP β on Ser105, which is known to enhance C/EBP β transcriptional efficacy (Trautwein et al.,1993; Buck et al.,1999), was evaluated with western blot analysis in the same conditions, with a specific antibody. As shown in Fig. 1D, only the 50-kDa isoform was positive for this phosphorylation, which decreased with time in the K5 condition.

All results were subjected to statistical analysis with Student’s t-test or one-way anova followed by the Newman–Keuls post hoc comparison test, with graphpad prism 4 software, in order to evaluate the significance of differences. The obtained significance levels are indicated in the text with the exact P-values up to 0.0001. Also, for post hoc tests, P-values are expressed by default as P < 0.05 or P < 0.001. We first investigated which C/EBP β isoforms were expressed by mature CGNs in culture, and whether they changed in survival/apoptotic conditions. To this aim,

primary cultures of rat CGNs were shifted from a medium with a high potassium concentration (25 mm KCl; K25), which is trophic for these neurons, to a medium with a low potassium Metformin concentration (5 mm KCl; K5), which is able to induce apoptosis, for study of the expression of the different C/EBP β isoforms in these conditions, which represent one of the most widely used models for studying neuronal survival/apoptosis (Contestabile, 2002). Immunocytochemistry of cultures shifted to a low-potassium medium demonstrated that immunoreactivity tended to decrease or disappear in apoptotic neurons as compared with neurons maintained http://www.selleckchem.com/products/epz-5676.html in trophic conditions (Fig. 1A). Expression of C/EBP β isoforms was evaluated with western blot

analysis and the densitometry of total protein extracts at 8, 16 and 24 h after exposure to the apoptotic stimulus. This analysis showed that CGNs expressed three isoforms with the following molecular masses: 21 kDa, which matches the LIP isoform; 35 kDa, which matches the LAP2 isoform; and 50 kDa,

which matches Erastin price the LAP1 isoform post-translationally modified, probably sumoylated, as demonstrated below (Fig. 1B). Both the 50-kDa and 35-kDa bands decreased after 24 h in K5 medium, whereas the 21-kDa band increased under the same condition; the expression levels of both β-actin and GAP-43, used as controls, remained unaltered (Fig. 1B and C). In particular, comparison of the densitometric analysis data from at least three independent western blot experiments for each isoform/β-actin ratio at each time point was performed between the K25 and the K5 growth conditions by use of the two-tailed Student’s t-test; this revealed statistically significant changes at 24 h for the 35-kDa and 21-kDa isoforms (LAP2/β-actin, P = 0.023 and Z = 2.2734; LIP/β-actin, P = 0.036 and Z = 2.0969). In order to determine whether the LAP1 and LAP2 isoforms were transcriptionally activated in these conditions, phosphorylation of C/EBP β on Ser105, which is known to enhance C/EBP β transcriptional efficacy (Trautwein et al.,1993; Buck et al.,1999), was evaluated with western blot analysis in the same conditions, with a specific antibody. As shown in Fig. 1D, only the 50-kDa isoform was positive for this phosphorylation, which decreased with time in the K5 condition.

’ (Pharmacist-10) This was compounded by concerns over working with accuracy checking technicians (ACTs) ‘I’m a bit nervous…it’s still the pharmacist’s responsibility even though

it’s the ACT that has checked it.’ (Pharmacist-3). Essentially, pharmacists are taking on work unnecessarily whilst simultaneously disempowering their staff from taking responsibility for their work. This creates an impasse where neither pharmacist, staff or ultimately, customers benefit. Pharmacists delegate, but often incompletely; they also allow ‘reverse delegation’. Acknowledging that this behaviour potentially creates a workload problem APO866 order is essential. Better workload management could be achieved if pharmacists were only involved with tasks that specifically required them. Delegation could be a valuable tool in easing pharmacist workload pressures; effective AZD4547 concentration staff planning and behaviour changes from the whole pharmacy team are requisites. Observation has given a unique insight into how effectively pharmacists delegate and manage their work albeit in a small sample of pharmacies. 1. Gidman W. Increasing community pharmacy workloads in England: causes and consequences. Int J Clin Pharm 2011; 33:

512–520. 2. Bond C, Blenkinsopp A, Inch J, Celino G, Gray, N. The effect of the new community pharmacy contract on the community pharmacy workforce. The Pharmacy Practice Research Branched chain aminotransferase Trust 2008:1–34. Rachel Urban1,2, Nooresameen Rana1, Evgenia Paloumpi1, Julie Morgan1 1University of Bradford, Bradford, UK, 2Bradford Institute For Health Research,

Bradford, UK, 3Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, UK To determine which health care providers (HCPs) communicate with community pharmacy regarding changes to patients’ medication using semi-structured interviews. Community pharmacies receive information regarding changes to patients’ medication infrequently and inconsistently. Communication to community pharmacies in England must be increased to improve seamless care and reduce medication errors. Lack of communication to community pharmacy is a longstanding issue. Recently measures to improve communication have been introduced including guidance from the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (RPS)1 and the introduction the Discharge Medicines Review (DMR) service in Wales. Previous studies have shown that communication with community pharmacies can contribute toward effective, seamless care and reduce error, 2 however, there is little evidence which examines the range of different HCPs who currently liaise with community pharmacy. This study explored which HCPs communicate with community pharmacies regarding medication changes, the extent of the communication and solutions for improvement.

’ (Pharmacist-10) This was compounded by concerns over working with accuracy checking technicians (ACTs) ‘I’m a bit nervous…it’s still the pharmacist’s responsibility even though

it’s the ACT that has checked it.’ (Pharmacist-3). Essentially, pharmacists are taking on work unnecessarily whilst simultaneously disempowering their staff from taking responsibility for their work. This creates an impasse where neither pharmacist, staff or ultimately, customers benefit. Pharmacists delegate, but often incompletely; they also allow ‘reverse delegation’. Acknowledging that this behaviour potentially creates a workload problem www.selleckchem.com/products/lgk-974.html is essential. Better workload management could be achieved if pharmacists were only involved with tasks that specifically required them. Delegation could be a valuable tool in easing pharmacist workload pressures; effective find more staff planning and behaviour changes from the whole pharmacy team are requisites. Observation has given a unique insight into how effectively pharmacists delegate and manage their work albeit in a small sample of pharmacies. 1. Gidman W. Increasing community pharmacy workloads in England: causes and consequences. Int J Clin Pharm 2011; 33:

512–520. 2. Bond C, Blenkinsopp A, Inch J, Celino G, Gray, N. The effect of the new community pharmacy contract on the community pharmacy workforce. The Pharmacy Practice Research cAMP Trust 2008:1–34. Rachel Urban1,2, Nooresameen Rana1, Evgenia Paloumpi1, Julie Morgan1 1University of Bradford, Bradford, UK, 2Bradford Institute For Health Research,

Bradford, UK, 3Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, UK To determine which health care providers (HCPs) communicate with community pharmacy regarding changes to patients’ medication using semi-structured interviews. Community pharmacies receive information regarding changes to patients’ medication infrequently and inconsistently. Communication to community pharmacies in England must be increased to improve seamless care and reduce medication errors. Lack of communication to community pharmacy is a longstanding issue. Recently measures to improve communication have been introduced including guidance from the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (RPS)1 and the introduction the Discharge Medicines Review (DMR) service in Wales. Previous studies have shown that communication with community pharmacies can contribute toward effective, seamless care and reduce error, 2 however, there is little evidence which examines the range of different HCPs who currently liaise with community pharmacy. This study explored which HCPs communicate with community pharmacies regarding medication changes, the extent of the communication and solutions for improvement.

Indeed, these inhibitors have been shown to be antiproliferative agents against yeast, fungi and protists (Urbina et al., 1997; Rodrigues et al., 2002; Visbal et al., 2003; Song & Nes, 2007). One attractive feature of

these inhibitors for the treatment of a T. vaginalis infection is the Ivacaftor in vitro absence of the inhibited enzyme in the sterol pathway of mammalian cells. The compounds 22,26 azasterol [20-piperidin-2-yl-5-pregnan-3β-20(R)-diol] (AZA) (Fig. 1a) and 24(R,S),25-epiminolanosterol (EIL) (Fig. 1b) are steroid compounds with a secondary amine in their side chain that have a potent inhibitory activity against 24-SMT, acting as analogues of the high-energy intermediates in the reaction catalysed by this enzyme (Song & Nes, 2007). In this work, we investigated the activity of AZA and EIL against T. vaginalis in vitro as an approach to the development of novel chemotherapeutic agents against this parasite. The JT strain of T. vaginalis was isolated at the Hospital

Universitário, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and has been maintained in culture for several years. Trophozoites were cultivated in TYM Diamond’s medium (Diamond, 1957) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). The cells were grown for 24 h at 36.5 °C. Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM, Gibco Invitrogen Corporation, NY) (Dulbecco & Freeman, 1959) supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FCS and 50 μg mL−1 gentamicin at 37 °C in a 5% CO2/air Selleck PARP inhibitor mixture. The growth experiments with T. vaginalis trophozoites were initiated with 2 × 104 cells mL−1.

Appropriate volumes of the inhibitors of 24-SMT solutions from stocks prepared Epothilone B (EPO906, Patupilone) in dimethyl-sulphoxide (DMSO) were added to the cultures at the desired final concentrations. The final concentration of DMSO in the growth medium never exceeded 1% (v/v) and had no effect on cell growth or morphology. The cell densities were determined in a haemocytometer with a light microscope. The experimental SMT inhibitors used for this study were AZA and EIL (Fig. 1) (Urbina, 1997; Rodrigues et al., 2002). AZA and EIL (Fig. 1) were synthesized and purified as described previously (Urbina et al., 1995; Atencio et al., 2001). Cells were adhered onto poly-l-lysine-coated glass coverslips and subsequently fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in a 0.1 M cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2. Next, the cells were postfixed for 15 min in 1% OsO4, dehydrated in ethanol, and critical point dried with liquid CO2. The cells were then coated with a 15-nm-thick layer of gold–palladium and observed under a JEOL 5800 scanning electron microscope. The control and treated parasite cells were fixed for 24 h in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in a 0.1 M cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2. After fixation, the cells were postfixed for 40 min in a solution containing 1% OsO4 and 0.8% potassium ferrocyanide in a 0.1 M cacodylate buffer, washed in phosphate-buffered saline, dehydrated in acetone and embedded in Epon.