Although the mechanisms regulating the expression of FOXP3 at the

transcriptional level and the molecular pathways involved in the control of sustained high levels of FOXP3 in nTreg is not well understood, AZD2014 price new exciting data in this area are emerging. A recent study in mice has shown that the RUNX transcription factors are essential for maintaining high FOXP3 expression, thus ensuring Treg lineage identity 47. In this context, a new molecular mechanism linking TGF-β and FOXP3 expression in humans has been reported 48. This study shows that the induction of RUNX1 and RUNX3 by TGF-β play an essential role in the generation and suppressive function of induced Treg. RUNX1 and RUNX3 bind to the FOXP3 promoter and activate the induction of FOXP3-expressing functional Treg. The study demonstrates that these events take place in vivo in human tonsils with high expression HSP inhibitor of RUNX3 in circulating and tonsil Treg. In humans, glycoprotein-A repetitions predominant has been identified as a key receptor controlling FOXP3 levels in nTreg through a positive feedback loop 49, 50. Several cytokines (including IL-2, IL-10 and TGF-β), as well as various surface markers such as CD25, CTLA-4, CD103, glucocorticoid-induced TNF family

receptor, neuropilin-1 and latency associated peptide are also involved in the thymic development, peripheral maintenance and suppressive function of nTreg. In human adult peripheral blood, two populations Beta adrenergic receptor kinase of FOXP3+ nTreg displaying either a naïve-like (CD45RA+) or a memory-like (CD45RO+) phenotype have been identified 51. Recently, the existence of two subsets of nTreg in human thymus and the periphery, defined by the expression of ICOS, has also been reported 52. ICOS,+FOXP3+ nTreg use IL-10 and TGF-β to suppress DC and T-cell functions, respectively, whereas ICOS−FOXP3+ nTreg express TGF-β. Interestingly, it appears that the alpha-chain of the IL-7 receptor (CD127) is a definitive surface marker distinguishing between human regulatory and activated effector T cells, thus facilitating both

Treg purification and functional characterization in human diseases 53. Compelling experimental evidence has demonstrated that the immune system has the ability to induce peripheral mechanisms of immune tolerance to allergens. In these processes, DC play a pivotal role as DC have the dual capacity to mount strong immune responses against invading pathogens and also to keep a state of tolerance to innocuous substances, thus ensuring the integrity of the body in an environment full of pathogens and potential allergens. The generation of Treg constitutes an essential mechanism in the establishment and maintenance of peripheral tolerance. Certain circumstances and particular microenvironments favor the generation of Treg. For example, specific DC subsets promote the generation of Treg in a microenvironment of tumors and chronic infections.